Nanjing was where one of the greatest catastrophes occurred in the war against Japan. The Nanjing Massacre was an episode of murder and mass rape committed by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing, then the capital of China, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937 – 1945). The massacre took place between December 1937 and January 1938, after the capture of the city.
During this period, soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army murdered Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants, totaling around 40,000 to over 300,000. The troops also committed rapes and looting in the city.
As most of the Japanese military records regarding the murders were kept secret or destroyed shortly after Japan’s surrender in 1945, historians were unable to accurately estimate the death toll of the massacre.
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Japan’s Invasion of Chinese Territory
In August 1937, the Japanese army invaded Shanghai, where they encountered strong resistance, suffering casualties. The battle was bloody as both sides had friction in close combat. By mid-November, the Japanese captured Shanghai with the help of naval bombardments.
The General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo initially decided not to expand the war due to heavy casualties and low troop morale.
However, on December 1, the headquarters ordered the troops to capture Nanjing. After losing the battle of Shanghai, Chiang Kai-shek, the general of the Chinese army, knew that the fall of Nanjing was a matter of time.
Chiang Kai-shek’s Plan
He and his team realized that they could not risk the annihilation of their elite troops in a symbolic, but hopeless, defense of the capital. To preserve the army for future battles, most were withdrawn. Chiang’s strategy was to follow the suggestion of his advisors. The strategy involved luring the Japanese army to the capital and using the territory as a defensive force.
Chiang planned to wage a prolonged war of attrition to wear down the Japanese in the interior of China. In a statement, Commander Tang Shengzhi announced that the city would not surrender and would fight to the death.
Tang gathered about 100,000 soldiers, mostly inexperienced, including Chinese troops who participated in the Battle of Shanghai. To prevent civilians from fleeing the city, he ordered the troops to guard the port, as instructed by Chiang Kai-shek.
The defensive force blocked roads, destroyed boats, and burned nearby villages, preventing evacuation. This rejection of Kai-shek’s ceasefire plan sealed the city’s fate.
Nanjing had been constantly bombarded for days. The Chinese troops that remained there were demoralized and began to drink before the inevitable fall of the city. The Japanese military continued to advance, breaking through the last lines of Chinese resistance and reaching the gates of Nanjing on December 9.
At noon on December 9, the Japanese military dropped pamphlets in the city, demanding its surrender within 24 hours. Meanwhile, members of the Committee contacted Tang and proposed a three-day ceasefire plan. The Chinese troops could withdraw without fighting while the Japanese troops would remain in their current position.
The Capture of the City of Nanjing
The Japanese waited for a response to their surrender request. However, no response was received by the deadline of December 10. General Iwane Matsui waited another hour before issuing the command to take Nanjing by force.
The Japanese army mounted its attack on the walls of Nanjing from multiple directions: The 16th Division attacked three gates in the east, the 6th Division launched its offensive in the west, and the 9th Division advanced into the intermediate area.
On December 12, under heavy artillery fire and aerial bombardment, General Tang Sheng-chi ordered his men to retreat. From then on, it was nothing less than chaos. Some Chinese soldiers stole civilian clothes in a desperate attempt to blend in. Others were shot by the supervising unit while trying to flee.
The Massacre Committed by Japanese Troops
Eyewitness accounts from foreigners and Chinese present in the city reported Japanese troops committing murder, theft, arson, and other war crimes. Some of the accounts came from foreigners who chose to stay behind to protect Chinese civilians.
Other accounts include first-person testimonies from survivors of the Nanjing Massacre, eyewitness accounts from journalists, as well as field diaries from military personnel. In 1937, the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun newspaper covered a “dispute” between the officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda.
- Newspaper citing Mukai and Noda | Toshiaki Mukai (left) and Tsuyoshi Noda (right)
The two men competed to be the first to kill 100 people with a sword before the capture of Nanjing. Both surpassed their goal during the battle, making it impossible to determine which officer had actually “won” the competition. Therefore, they decided to start another competition to kill 150 people.
Subsequently, after Japan’s surrender in 1945, both Mukai and Noda were arrested and tried as war criminals. Both were found guilty and executed by firing squad.
Rape of Women and Children
It is estimated that around 20,000 Chinese women were raped during the occupation. A large number of rapes were committed by Japanese soldiers. They went door to door, looking for women to be captured and raped.
Initially, the women were killed immediately after being raped. They were often killed through explicit mutilations. Young children were not exempt from these atrocities and were also captured so that Japanese soldiers could rape them.
Withdrawal of Troops, End of Occupation, and Trial
At the end of January 1938, the Japanese army forced all refugees from the Safety Zone to return home, claiming to have “restored order.” After the establishment of the collaborating government in 1938, order was gradually restored in Nanjing and the atrocities of the Japanese troops decreased considerably.
On February 18, 1938, the International Committee of the Nanking Safety Zone was renamed to the “International Rescue Committee of Nanking,” and the Safety Zone effectively ceased to function. The last refugee camps were closed in May 1938.
In February 1938, both Prince Asaka and General Matsui were called back to Japan. Matsui retired, but Prince Asaka remained on the Supreme War Council until the end of World War II. He was promoted to the rank of general in August 1939, although he had no further military command.
Shortly after Japan’s surrender in 1945, those in charge of the Japanese troops in Nanjing were put on trial. As mentioned earlier, officers Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda were tried by the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and sentenced to death.
Iwane Matsui was indicted for crimes against humanity by the Tokyo Tribunal and sentenced to death. Hisao Tani, one of those responsible for the massacre, was tried by the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal for crimes against humanity and sentenced to death.
Immunity for Prince Asaka
Prince Asaka Yasuhiko was the one who authorized the troops to execute and rape civilians and plunder the city. In 1946, Prince Asaka was interrogated about his involvement in the Nanjing Massacre, and the testimony was submitted to the International Prosecution Section of the Tokyo tribunal.
Asaka denied the existence of any massacre and claimed to have never received complaints about the conduct of his troops. Subsequently, after the end of World War II, Asaka, like the entire imperial family, was granted immunity by American General Douglas MacArthur.
Who Were the True Responsible Parties?
After the end of World War II in September 1945, Japanese war criminals were put on trial in the Tokyo Tribunal and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal.
The responsible parties were:
- General Iwane Matsui – Matsui was aware of what the troops were doing in Nanjing but did not take any action, claiming to be ill at the time of the capture. The Tokyo Tribunal found that, despite his illness, Matsui had sufficient capacity to control his troops. He was sentenced to death and executed on December 23, 1948;
- Lieutenant General Hisao Tani – Tani was tried in the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. Tani denied the charges against him, blaming Korean soldiers for the massacre. He was found guilty of instigating the massacre and rape of civilians and was sentenced to death and executed on April 26, 1947;
- Prince Kan’in – Considered responsible for authorizing the use of bacteriological weapons used in China, especially in Shanghai and Nanjing. However, Kan’in died before the end of the war in May 1945 and therefore was not tried;
- Prince Asaka – As mentioned before, immunity was granted to Asaka. The prince was the one who authorized the massacre in Nanjing, in the absence of Matsui’s command, who was ill;
- Lieutenant General Isamu Chō – Assistant to Asaka, was considered an accomplice in the massacre. However, Chō committed suicide in the Battle of Okinawa in June 1945 and therefore was not tried;
- Prime Minister Kōki Hirota – Also considered one of the responsible parties, was tried in the Tokyo Tribunal. Hirota was found guilty of neglecting his role as Prime Minister and allowing the massacre to occur. He was sentenced to death and executed on December 23, 1948;
Controversies and Denial of the Massacre
Japanese nationalist groups engage in historical revisionism and deny that a massacre occurred. However, the Japanese government itself acknowledged the Nanjing Massacre after World War II.
However, the attitude of the Japanese government convinces the Chinese little, as there is a controversy involving the Yasukuni Shrine. The shrine has the names of registered war criminals, and Japanese political figures visit the shrine and pay tribute to the men responsible for the tragedy in Nanjing.
This has weakened the relationship between China and Japan, as it gives the impression that the Japanese do not regret the past despite the government’s statements.
No emperor of Japan has visited Yasukuni since 1975, although the Emperor and Empress still continue to attend the National War Dead Memorial Service annually.
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