The 500 most used kanji in Japanese: a learning roadmap

This list contains 500 of the most-used kanji in modern Japanese, drawn from the standard frequency taught to Japanese students in elementary and middle school (the Jōyō kanji set). Mastering these 500 characters is enough to decode the bulk of everyday writing: signs, news headlines, official forms, and most casual text.

The list is split into six frequency tiers: top 50, 51–100, 101–200, 201–300, 301–400 and 401–500. Each kanji is shown with its on'yomi (Sino-Japanese reading) and kun'yomi (native Japanese reading) in romaji, followed by one or two short English meanings, so the list works as a study plan as well as a quick reference.

How to use it: work through the list from top to bottom, around 5–10 new kanji a week, and pair each one with a couple of vocabulary words and a short example sentence. Kanji learned in context stick far better than kanji learned in isolation.

Top 50: the most frequent kanji

These 50 kanji appear in nearly every Japanese text and form the foundation for every other tier.

日 (nichi, jitsu / hi, -bi) – day, sun, Japan
一 (ichi / hito(tsu)) – one
国 (koku / kuni) – country
会 (kai, e / a(u)) – meeting, gathering
人 (jin, nin / hito) – person, -er
年 (nen / toshi) – year
大 (dai, tai / ō(kii)) – big, large
十 (juu / too) – ten
二 (ni / futa(tsu)) – two
本 (hon / moto) – book, origin
中 (chuu / naka) – middle, center
長 (chou / naga(i)) – long
出 (shutsu, sui / de(ru), da(su)) – to go out, to leave
三 (san / mit(tsu)) – three
同 (dou / ona(jiru)) – same, equal
時 (ji / toki) – time
政 (sei, shou) – government, politics
事 (ji / koto) – thing, matter
自 (ji / mizuka(ra)) – self
行 (kou, gyou / i(ku), yu(ku)) – to leave, past
社 (sha / yashiro) – company, shrine
見 (ken / mi(ru)) – to look, regard
月 (getsu, gatsu / tsuki) – moon, month
分 (bun, fun / wa(karu), wa(keru)) – to divide, minute
議 (gi) – discussion
後 (go, kou / nochi, ato) – after, later
前 (zen / mae) – beforehand, I/we
民 (min / tami) – people, nation
生 (sei, shou / i(kiru), u(mu), ha(eru), na(ru)) – life, to be born
連 (ren / tsu(reru), tsu(reru)) – to connect
五 (go / itsu(tsu)) – five
発 (hatsu, hotsu) – to depart, to emit
間 (kan, ken / aida, ma) – space, interval
対 (tai, tsui) – opposite, versus
上 (jou, shou / uwa(ru), a(garu), nobo(ru)) – above, up
部 (bu) – part, section
東 (tou / higashi) – east
者 (sha / mono) – person, -er
党 (tou) – party
地 (chi, ji) – ground, earth
合 (gou, gatsu / a(u), awa(seru)) – to fit, to match
市 (shi / ichi) – town, block
業 (gyou) – labor, work
内 (nai, dai / uchi) – inside
相 (sou, shou / ai) – mutual, together
方 (hou / kata) – direction, way
四 (shi / yo, yo(ttsu)) – four
定 (tei, jou / sada(meru)) – to decide, to fix
今 (kon, kin / ima) – now
回 (kai, kai / mawa(ru)) – times, occasion

51–100: core vocabulary kanji

Combined with the top 50, these 100 cover the bulk of everyday reading: newspapers, signs, and casual messages.

新 (shin / atara(shii)) – new
場 (jou / ba) – place
金 (kin, kane) – gold, money
員 (in) – member
九 (kyuu, ku / kokono(tsu)) – nine
入 (nyuu / hai(ru), i(reru)) – to enter
選 (sen / era(bu)) – to choose, to elect
立 (ritsu, ritsu / ta(tsu), ta(teru)) – to stand
開 (kai / hira(ku), a(ku)) – to open
手 (shu / te, te(rare)) – hand
米 (bei, mai / kome) – rice
力 (ryoku, ryoku / chikara) – power, strength
学 (gaku / mana(bu)) – to learn, study
問 (mon / to(u)) – to ask
高 (kou / taka(i)) – high, tall
代 (dai, tai / kawa(ru), shiro) – to represent, to substitute
明 (mei, myou / aka(rui), a(keru)) – bright, to clarify
実 (jitsu, shitsu / mi) – fruit, result
円 (en) – circle, yen
関 (kan / seki, kaka(waru)) – to concern, related
決 (ketsu / ki(meru)) – to decide
子 (shi, su / ko) – child
動 (dou / ugo(ku), ugo(kasu)) – to move, transfer
京 (kyou, kei / miyako) – capital, metropolis
全 (zen / matta(ku), subete(rashii)) – whole, all
目 (moku, boku / me) – eye
表 (hyou, omote, arawa(su)) – surface, to show
戦 (sen / ikusa, tataka(u)) – military, martial
経 (kei, kyou / he(ru), ta(tsu)) – to pass, error
通 (tsuu, tsu / kayo(u), too(ru)) – to pass through
外 (gai, ge / soto, hoka) – outside
最 (sai) – most, -est
言 (gen, gon / i(u), koto) – to say, word
氏 (shi / uji) – family name
現 (gen / arawa(reru), utsutsu) – present, current
理 (ri) – reason, by means of
調 (chou / shira(beru), totono(eru)) – to investigate
体 (tai, tei / karada) – body, oneself
化 (ka, ke / ba(keru)) – to change, -ization
田 (den / ta) – rice field
当 (tou / a(teru), a(tari)) – to hit, that one
八 (hachi / ya, ya(ttsu)) – eight
六 (roku / mu, mu(ttsu)) – six
約 (yaku) – approximately, promise
主 (shu, su / omo, omo(ni)) – main, master
題 (dai) – topic, problem
下 (ka, ge / shita, kudaru, sa(garu)) – below, down
首 (shu / kubi) – neck, head
意 (i) – meaning, intention
法 (hou) – law, method

101–200: extended basics

These kanji show up constantly in news articles, official forms, and the vocabulary lists for JLPT N4 and N3.

不 (fu, bu) – non-, un-
来 (rai / ku(ru), kita(ru)) – to come
作 (saku, sa / tsuku(ru)) – to make
性 (sei, shou) – nature, so
的 (teki) – target, -ic
要 (you / i(ru)) – to need
用 (you / mochi(iru)) – to use, servant
制 (sei) – system
治 (chi, ji / nao(ru)) – to govern
度 (do, toku / tabi) – degree, time
務 (mu / tsuto(meru)) – duty, service
強 (kyou, gō / tsuyo(i), shi(iru)) – strong
気 (ki, ke) – spirit, energy
小 (shou / ko, o, chiisa(i)) – small, little
七 (shichi / nana, nana(tsu)) – seven
成 (sei, shou / na(ru), na(su)) – to become
期 (ki, go) – period, term
公 (kou, kuu / ooyake) – public
持 (ji / mo(chi), mo(tsu)) – to hold
野 (ya, sho / no) – field, plain
協 (kyou) – cooperation
取 (shu / to(ru)) – to take
都 (to, tsu / miyako) – capital, metropolis
和 (wa, o) – peace, harmony
統 (tou) – to unite
以 (i) – by means of, with
機 (ki / hata) – machine, opportunity
平 (hei, byou / hira(i), ta(i)) – flat, peace
総 (sou) – total, general
加 (ka / kuwa(eru), kuwa(waru)) – to add
山 (san, sen / yama) – mountain
思 (shi, shi / omo(u)) – thought, idea
家 (ka, ke / ie, uchi) – home, house
話 (wa / hanashi, hana(su)) – story, talk
世 (sei, se / yo) – world, boundary
受 (ju / u(keru), uka(ru)) – to receive
区 (ku) – ward, district
領 (ryou) – to guide, to lead
多 (ta / oo(i)) – many, much
県 (ken) – prefecture
続 (zoku / tsuzu(ku), tsuzu(keru)) – to continue
進 (shin / susu(mu), susu(meru)) – forward, advance
正 (sei, shou / tada(shii), masa) – correct, right
安 (an / yasu(i)) – cheap, peace
設 (setsu / mō(keru)) – to establish, facility
保 (ho, hou / tamo(tsu)) – to protect, to guard
改 (kai / arata(meru)) – to change, strange
数 (suu / kazu, kazo(eru)) – number, to count
記 (ki / shiru(su)) – to write, to record
院 (in) – institution, temple
女 (jo, nyo / onna) – woman, female
初 (sho / haji(me), hatsu) – beginning, first
北 (hoku / kita) – north
午 (go) – noon
指 (shi / yubi, sa(su)) – finger, to point
権 (ken, gon) – right, authority
心 (shin / kokoro) – heart, mind
界 (kai / sakai) – world, boundary
支 (shi / sasa(eru)) – to support, branch
第 (dai) – number, turn
産 (san / u(mu), u(mareru)) – to give birth
結 (ketsu / musu(bu), musu(bu) – to tie, to bind
百 (hyaku) – hundred
派 (ha) – faction, school
点 (ten) – point, dot
教 (kyou / oshi(eru), oso(waru)) – to teach, religion
報 (hou / muku(iru)) – report, information
済 (sai / su(mu), su(masu)) – to settle, to finish
書 (sho / ka(ku)) – to write, book
府 (fu) – government, prefecture
活 (katsu / i(kiru), i(kasu)) – to live, to enliven
原 (gen / hara) – plain, origin
先 (sen / saki) – beforehand, I/we
共 (kyou / tomo) – together, both
得 (toku / e(ru), uru) – to get, profit
解 (kai, ge / to(ku), hodo(ku), wa(keru)) – to solve, to understand
名 (mei, myou / na) – name, famous
交 (kou / kawa(su), maji(waru), ma(zeru)) – to exchange, to mix
資 (shi) – resources, character
予 (yo) – beforehand, I/we
川 (sen / kawa) – river
向 (kou / mu(ku), mu(keru), muka(u)) – to face, to direct
際 (sai / giwa) – occasion, edge
査 (sa) – to investigate
勝 (shou / ka(tsu)) – to win
面 (men / omo, tura) – face, surface
委 (i) – committee, entrust
告 (koku / tsu(geru)) – to announce, to tell
軍 (gun) – military
文 (bun, mon / fumi) – writing, sentence
反 (han, hon, tan / so(ru), so(rasu)) – reverse, anti-
元 (gen, gan / moto) – origin, former
重 (juu, chou / omo(i), kasa(neru)) – difficult
近 (kin / chika(i)) – near, close
千 (sen / chi) – thousand
考 (kou / kanga(eru)) – thought, idea
判 (han, ban) – judgment, seal
認 (nin / shitat(ta), mito(meru)) – to recognize, to approve
画 (ka, kaku) – picture, stroke
海 (kai / umi) – sea

201–300: intermediate level

Used in more formal writing: journalism, official documents, and books. A solid reading threshold for modern prose.

参 (san, shin / mai(ru)) – to participate
売 (bai / u(ru), u(reru)) – to sell
利 (ri) – advantage, profit
組 (so / ku(mu), ku(mi)) – group, corps
知 (chi / shi(ru)) – to know
案 (an) – plan, idea
道 (dou, tou / michi) – road, way
信 (shin) – trust, faith
策 (saku) – plan, measure
集 (shuu / atsu(meru), tsudo(u)) – to collect, to gather
在 (zai / a(ru)) – to exist, in
件 (ken) – matter, item
団 (dan) – group, corps
別 (betsu / wakare(ru)) – to separate, different
物 (butsu, motsu / mono) – thing, object
側 (soku / gawa) – side, area
任 (nin / maka(seru)) – to entrust, duty
引 (in / hi(ku), hi(keru)) – to pull
使 (shi / tsuka(u)) – to use, servant
求 (kyuu / moto(meru)) – to seek, demand
所 (sho / tokoro) – place
次 (ji, shi / tsugi, tsu(gu)) – next, order
水 (sui / mizu) – water
半 (han) – half
品 (hin / shina) – goods, article
昨 (saku / kinou) – yesterday, previous
論 (ron) – theory, discussion
計 (kei / haka(ru)) – to measure, plan
死 (shi / shi(nu)) – to die
官 (kan) – official, government
増 (zou / ma(su), fu(eru)) – to increase
係 (kei / kakari) – relation, charge
感 (kan) – feeling, emotion
特 (toku) – special
情 (jou / nasake) – feeling, emotion
投 (tou / na(geru)) – to throw
示 (ji, shi / shime(su)) – to show, to indicate
変 (hen / kawa(ru)) – to change, strange
打 (da / u(utsu)) – to strike, attack
男 (dan, nan / otoko) – man, male
基 (ki / moto) – basis, foundation
私 (shi / watakushi, watashi) – I, private
各 (kaku) – each, every
始 (shi / haji(meru), haji(maru)) – to begin
島 (tou / shima) – island
直 (choku, jiki / nao(ru)) – direct, to fix
両 (ryou) – both
朝 (chou / asa) – morning, dynasty
革 (kaku / kawa) – leather, reform
価 (ka, kai / atai) – value, price
式 (shiki) – style, ceremony
確 (kaku / tashi(kameru)) – certain, firm
村 (son / mura) – village
提 (tei / saga(su)) – to propose, to take out
運 (un / hako(bu)) – to transport
終 (shuu / owa(ru), o(eru)) – to end, to finish
挙 (kyo / a(geru)) – to raise, to lift
果 (ka / ha(tasu), hate(ru)) – fruit, result
西 (sei, sai / nishi) – west
勢 (sei, sei / ikio(i)) – force, trend
減 (gen / he(ru), he(rasu)) – to decrease
台 (dai, tai) – platform, stand
広 (kou / hiro(i), hiro(meru)) – wide, broad
容 (you / i(reru)) – to contain, to include
必 (hitsu / kanara(zu)) – certainly, must
応 (ou) – to answer
演 (en) – to perform, play
電 (den) – electricity
歳 (sai, se) – years (age)
住 (juu / su(mu), su(mau)) – to live, to reside
争 (sou, sou / araso(u)) – to dispute, to compete
談 (dan) – talk, story
能 (nou) – ability, talent
無 (mu, bu / na(i)) – nothing, none
再 (sai, sai) – again, restore
位 (i) – position, rank
置 (chi / o(ku)) – to place, to put
企 (ki / kuwada(teru)) – to plan, to devise
真 (shin / ma, makoto) – true, reality
流 (ryuu, ru / naga(reru)) – to flow, style
格 (kaku, kou) – standard, status
有 (yuu, u / a(ru)) – to exist, have
疑 (gi / utaga(u)) – to doubt
口 (kou, kuo / kuchi) – mouth, opening
過 (ka / su(giru), su(gosu)) – to pass, error
局 (kyoku) – bureau, station
少 (shou / suku(nai), sukoshi) – few, little
放 (hou / hana(su), hana(reru)) – to release, to set free
税 (zei) – tax
検 (ken) – to judge, guess
藤 (tou / fuji) – wisteria
町 (chou / machi) – town, block
常 (jou / tsune) – ordinary, usual
校 (kou, kyou) – school
料 (ryou) – material, fee
沢 (taku / sawa) – swamp, luster
裁 (sai / ta(tsu), sabaku) – to cut
状 (jou) – condition, situation
工 (kou, ku) – labor, work
建 (ken, kon / ta(teru), tatsu) – to build, structure

301–400: upper-intermediate

Common in newspapers, official paperwork, and higher-level literature. Foundational for JLPT N2 vocabulary.

語 (go / kata(ru)) – language, word
球 (kyuu / tama) – ball, sphere
営 (ei / itona(mu)) – to operate, business
空 (kuu, sou / sora, kara, a(ku)) – sky, empty
職 (shoku) – job, profession
証 (shou / akashi) – proof, evidence
土 (to, do / tsuchi) – earth, soil
与 (yo / ata(eru)) – to give, and
急 (kyuu / iso(gu)) – urgent, hurry
止 (shi / to(maru), to(meru)) – to stop
送 (sou / oku(ru)) – to send
援 (en) – to support, aid
供 (kyou, kuu / to(mu), sono(eru)) – to offer, to supply
可 (ka) – possible, can
役 (yaku, eki) – role, service
構 (kou / kama(eru)) – to build, structure
木 (boku, moku / ki) – tree, wood
割 (katsu / wa(ru), wa(reru), sa(ku)) – to divide, to split
聞 (bun, mon / ki(ku), ki(koeru)) – to hear, to ask
身 (shin / mi) – body, oneself
費 (hi / tsui(yasu)) – to spend, cost
付 (fu / tsu(ku), tsu(keru)) – to attach, to stick
施 (shi, sei) – to carry out, charity
切 (setsu, sai / ki(ru)) – to cut
由 (yuu, yui / yoshi) – reason, by means of
説 (setsu, zai / to(ku)) – to explain, theory
転 (ten / koro(bu), koro(geru)) – to turn, to roll
食 (shoku, jiki / ta(beru), ku(u)) – to eat, food
比 (hi / kura(beru)) – to compare
難 (nan / muzuka(shii)) – difficult
防 (bou / fuse(gu)) – to prevent, defend
補 (ho / ogina(u)) – to supplement
車 (sha / kuruma) – car, vehicle
優 (yuu / yasa(shii), sugu(reru)) – gentle, superior
夫 (fu, fu / otto) – husband, man
研 (ken / to(gu)) – to polish, study
収 (shuu / osa(meru)) – to harvest, income
断 (dan / ta(tsu), kotowa(ru)) – to cut off, decision
井 (sei, shou / i) – well, draw water
何 (ka / nani, nan) – what
南 (nan, na / minami) – south
石 (seki, shaku / ishi) – stone
足 (soku / ashi, ta(riru)) – foot, leg, enough
違 (i / chiga(u)) – different, to differ
消 (shou / ki(eru), ke(su)) – to disappear, to extinguish
境 (kyou, kei / sakai) – boundary, border
神 (shin, jin / kami, kou) – god, spirit
番 (ban) – number, turn
規 (ki) – rule, standard
術 (jutsu, sube(ru)) – art, technique
護 (go / mamo(ru)) – to protect, to guard
展 (ten) – to exhibit, to develop
態 (tai) – condition, situation
導 (dou / michibi(ku)) – to guide, to lead
鮮 (sen / azayak(a)) – fresh, vivid
備 (bi / sona(eru)) – to prepare, equip
宅 (taku) – home, house
害 (gai) – harm, damage
配 (hai / kuba(ru)) – to distribute, to match
副 (fuku) – vice-, sub-
算 (san) – to calculate
視 (shi / mi(ru)) – to look, regard
条 (jou) – article, clause
幹 (kan / miki) – tribe, family
独 (doku / hito(ri)) – alone, Germany
警 (kei) – to warn, police
宮 (kyuu, guu / miya) – shrine, palace
究 (kyuu / kiwame(ru)) – to research, to master
育 (iku / soda(teru), haguku(mu)) – to raise, to educate
席 (seki) – seat, position
輸 (yu, shu) – to transport
訪 (hou / tazune(ru), otozu(reru)) – to visit
楽 (gaku, raku / tano(shii)) – pleasure, comfort
起 (ki / o(kiru), o(kosu)) – to wake, to start
万 (man, ban) – ten thousand
着 (chaku, jaku / ki(ru), tsu(ku)) – to wear, to arrive
乗 (jou / no(ru), no(seru)) – to ride, to board
店 (ten / mise) – shop, store
述 (jutsu / no(beru)) – to describe
残 (zan / noko(ru), noko(su)) – remaining, to leave
想 (sou, so) – thought, idea
線 (sen) – line, track
率 (ritsu, sotsu) – rate, ratio
病 (byou / yamai) – illness, disease
農 (nou) – agriculture
州 (shuu, su) – state, province
武 (bu, mu) – military, martial
声 (sei, shou / koe) – voice, sound
質 (shitsu, shichi / tachi) – quality, matter
念 (nen) – thought, wish
待 (tai / ma(tsu)) – to wait
試 (shi / kokoro(mi), tamesu) – to try, to attempt
族 (zoku) – tribe, family
象 (shou, zou) – elephant, phenomenon
銀 (gin) – silver
域 (iki) – area, region
助 (jo / tasu(keru)) – to help, assistant
労 (rou) – labor, work
例 (rei / tato(eba)) – example, custom
衛 (ei) – defense, guard

401–500: advanced

The last hundred on this list appear mostly in formal writing, journalism, and literary works. With these under your belt, the majority of Japanese texts read fluently.

然 (zen, nen) – nature, so
早 (sou, sa / haya(i)) – early, fast
張 (chou / ha(ru)) – to stretch, to strain
映 (ei / utsu(ru), utsu(su), ha(eru)) – to reflect, to project
限 (gen / kagi(ru)) – to limit, as far as
親 (shin / oya, shitai) – parent, relative
額 (gaku / hitai) – forehead, amount
監 (kan) – to supervise
環 (kan) – ring, cycle
験 (ken) – to judge, guess
追 (tsui / o(u)) – to chase, follow
審 (shin) – to judge, guess
商 (shou / akina(u)) – commerce, merchant
葉 (you / ha) – leaf, page
義 (gi) – justice, meaning
伝 (den / tsuta(waru), tsuta(eru)) – to transmit, legend
働 (dou / hatara(ku)) – to work, labor
形 (kei, gyou / katachi) – form, shape
景 (kei) – scene, view
落 (raku / o(chiru), o(chasu)) – to fall, to drop
欧 (ou) – Europe
担 (tan / nina(u), katsu(gu)) – to carry, to bear
好 (kou, kou / ko(nomu), su(ku)) – to like, fond
退 (tai / shirizo(ku), no(keru)) – to retreat, to remove
準 (jun) – standard, semi-
賞 (shou) – prize, praise
訴 (so / utta(eru)) – to sue, complaint
辺 (hen / be, ata(ri)) – side, area
造 (zou / tsuku(ru)) – to create, to make
英 (ei) – England, English
被 (hi) – to suffer, passive
株 (kabu) – stock, shares
頭 (tou, zu / atama) – head, chief
技 (gi / waza) – skill, technique
低 (tei / hiku(i)) – low, short
毎 (mai / goto(no)) – every, each
医 (i) – medicine, doctor
復 (fuku) – again, restore
仕 (shi / tsuka(eru)) – to serve, salary
去 (kyo, ko / sa(ru)) – to leave, past
姿 (shi / sugata) – figure, shape
味 (mi, aji) – taste, flavor
負 (fu / ma(keru), o(u)) – to lose
閣 (kaku) – tower, cabinet
韓 (kan) – Korea
渡 (to / wata(ru), wata(su)) – to cross over
失 (shitsu / ushi(nau)) – to lose
移 (i / utsu(ru), utsu(su)) – to move, transfer
差 (sa, sa(su)) – difference, to differ
衆 (shuu, shu) – amount, quantity
個 (ko) – piece, individual
門 (mon / kado) – gate, door
写 (sha / utsu(su)) – to copy, photograph
評 (hyou) – criticism, review
課 (ka) – lesson, section
末 (matsu / sue) – end, tip
守 (shu, shu / mamo(ru)) – to protect, to guard
若 (jaku, nyaku / waka(i)) – young, if
脳 (nou) – brain
極 (kyoku, goku / kiwa(meru)) – pole, extreme
種 (shu / tane) – seed, kind
美 (bi / utsuku(shii)) – beautiful
岡 (kou / oka) – hill
影 (ei / kage) – shadow, light
命 (mei, myou / inochi) – life, fate
含 (gan / fuku(mu), fuku(meru)) – to contain, to include
福 (fuku) – fortune, happiness
蔵 (zou / kura) – warehouse, store
量 (ryou / haka(ru)) – amount, quantity
望 (bou, mou / nozo(mu)) – to hope, expectation
松 (shou / matsu) – pine tree
非 (hi) – non-, un-
撃 (geki / u(tsu)) – to strike, attack
佐 (sa) – to help, assistant
核 (kaku) – nucleus, core
観 (kan) – to view, concept
察 (satsu) – to judge, guess
整 (sei / totono(eru)) – to arrange, to order
段 (dan) – step, grade
横 (ou / yoko) – side, sideways
融 (yuu) – to melt, finance
型 (kei / kata) – model, type
白 (haku, byaku / shiro, shiro(i)) – white
深 (shin / fuka(i)) – deep
字 (ji) – character, letter
答 (tou / kota(eru)) – to answer
夜 (ya / yoru) – night, evening
製 (sei) – to manufacture, made in
票 (hyou) – ballot, vote
況 (kyou) – condition, situation
音 (on, in / oto) – sound, tone
申 (shin, mō(u)) – to apply, to say
様 (you / sama) – way, manner, Mr.
財 (zai, sai) – property, wealth
港 (kou / minato) – port, harbor
識 (shiki) – knowledge, discrimination
注 (chuu / sosogu) – to pour, to focus
呼 (ko / yo(bu)) – to call
渉 (shou / wata(ru)) – to wade, to negotiate
達 (tatsu / sato(ru)) – to reach, attain

For a focused study, check out The 150 most used Kanji in the Japanese language which complements this list.